Notes to the Group accounts

The consolidated financial statements have been prepared in accordance with International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) as adopted by the European Union (EU). IFRS comprises accounting standards prefixed IFRS issued by the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) and those prefixed IAS issued by the IASB’s predecessor body as well as interpretations issued by the International Financial Reporting Interpretations Committee and its predecessor body. The EU endorsed version of IAS 39 ‘Financial Instruments: Recognition and Measurement’ relaxes some of the hedge accounting requirements; the Group has not taken advantage of this relaxation, and therefore there is no difference in application to the Group between IFRS as adopted by the EU and IFRS as issued by the IASB.

The financial information has been prepared under the historical cost convention, as modified by the revaluation of investment properties, available-for-sale financial assets, trading securities and certain other financial assets and liabilities at fair value through profit or loss and all derivative contracts.

The following IFRS pronouncements relevant to the Group have been adopted in these consolidated financial statements:

(i) IFRS 7 ‘Financial Instruments: Disclosures’. This standard, which was effective from 1 January 2007, requires more detailed qualitative and quantitative disclosures about exposure to risks arising from the Group’s financial instruments. As a disclosure standard, the application of this new standard has not had any impact on amounts recognised in the financial statements. The IFRS 7 disclosures are set out in these financial statements and in the Business review. IFRS 7 supersedes IAS 30 ‘Disclosures in the Financial Statements of Banks and Similar Financial Institutions’ and the disclosure requirements previously contained in IAS 32 ‘Financial Instruments: Presentation’.

(ii) Amendment to IAS 1 ‘Presentation of Financial Statements – Capital Disclosures’. This standard, which was effective from 1 January 2007, requires additional disclosures of the objectives, policies and processes for managing capital, quantitative data about what the Group regards as capital, and compliance with capital requirements. These disclosures are set out in the Business review.

Details of those IFRS pronouncements which will be relevant to the Group but which were not effective at 31 December 2007 and which have not been applied in preparing these financial statements are given in note 50.

The Group’s accounting policies are set out below.

(a) Consolidation

The assets, liabilities and results of Group undertakings (including special purpose entities) are included in the financial statements on the basis of accounts made up to the reporting date. Group undertakings include all entities over which the Group has the power to govern the financial and operating policies which generally accompanies a shareholding of more than one half of the voting rights. The existence and effect of potential voting rights that are currently exercisable or convertible are considered when assessing whether the Group controls another entity. Group undertakings are fully consolidated from the date on which control is transferred to the Group; they are de-consolidated from the date that control ceases. Open Ended Investment Companies (OEICs) where the Group, through the Group’s life funds, has a controlling interest are consolidated; the unit holders’ interest is reported in other liabilities. Intra-Group transactions, balances and unrealised gains and losses on transactions between Group companies are eliminated.

(b) Goodwill

Goodwill represents the excess of the cost of an acquisition over the fair value of the Group’s share of the identifiable net assets and contingent liabilities of the acquired entity at the date of acquisition. Goodwill is recognised as an asset at cost and is tested at least annually for impairment. If an impairment is identified the carrying value of the goodwill is written down immediately through the income statement and is not subsequently reversed. At the date of disposal of a Group undertaking, the carrying value of attributable goodwill is included in the calculation of the profit or loss on disposal except where it has been written off directly to reserves in the past.

(c) Other intangible assets

Other intangible assets comprise capitalised software enhancements and customer lists. Capitalised software enhancements are amortised over periods not exceeding five years, being their estimated useful lives, using the straight-line method. Customer lists are amortised over periods not exceeding 15 years, being their estimated useful lives, in line with the income expected to arise from those customers and are subject to annual reassessment. All other intangible assets are reviewed for impairment whenever events or any changes in circumstances indicate that the carrying amount may not be recoverable. In the event that an asset’s carrying amount is determined to be greater than its recoverable amount, it is written down immediately.

(d) Revenue recognition

Interest income and expense are recognised in the income statement for all interest-bearing financial instruments, except for those classified at fair value through profit or loss, using the effective interest method. The effective interest method is a method of calculating the amortised cost of a financial asset or liability and of allocating the interest income or interest expense. The effective interest rate is the rate that exactly discounts the estimated future cash payments or receipts over the expected life of the instrument or, when appropriate, a shorter period, to the net carrying amount of the financial asset or financial liability. The effective interest rate is calculated on initial recognition of the financial asset or liability, estimating the future cash flows after considering all the contractual terms of the instrument but not future credit losses. The calculation includes all amounts paid or received by the Group including expected early redemptions and related penalties and premiums and discounts that are an integral part of the overall return as well as direct incremental transaction costs related to the acquisition, issue or disposal of a financial instrument. Once a financial asset or a group of similar financial assets has been written down as a result of an impairment loss, interest income is recognised using the rate of interest used to discount the future cash flows for the purpose of measuring the impairment loss (see j).

Fees and commissions which are not an integral part of the effective interest rate are generally recognised when the service has been provided. Loan commitment fees for loans that are likely to be drawn down are deferred (together with related direct costs) and recognised as an adjustment to the effective interest rate on the loan. Loan syndication fees are recognised as revenue when the syndication has been completed and the Group retains no part of the loan package for itself or retains a part at the same effective interest rate for all interest-bearing financial instruments, including loans and advances, as for the other participants.

Dividend income is recognised when the right to receive payment is established.

Revenue recognition policies specific to life assurance and general insurance business are detailed below (see r).

(e) Trading securities, other financial assets and liabilities at fair value through profit or loss, and available-for-sale financial assets

Debt securities and equity shares acquired principally for the purpose of selling in the short term or which are part of a portfolio which is managed for short-term gains are classified as trading securities and recognised in the balance sheet at their fair value. Gains and losses arising from changes in their fair value together with interest coupons and dividend income are recognised in the income statement within net trading income in the period in which they occur.

Other financial assets and liabilities at fair value through profit or loss are designated as such by management upon initial recognition. Such assets and liabilities are carried in the balance sheet at their fair value and gains and losses arising from changes in fair value together with interest coupons and dividend income are recognised in the income statement within net trading income in the period in which they occur.

Financial assets and liabilities are designated as at fair value through profit or loss on acquisition:

• When doing so results in more relevant information because either:

– it eliminates or significantly reduces the inconsistent treatment that would otherwise arise from measuring the assets and liabilities or recognising gains or losses on them on a different basis; or

– the assets and liabilities are part of a group which is managed, and its performance evaluated, on a fair value basis in accordance with a documented risk management or investment strategy with management information also prepared on this basis, or

• Where the assets and liabilities contain one or more embedded derivatives that significantly modify the cash flows arising under the contract and would otherwise need to be separately accounted for.

The fair values of assets and liabilities traded in active markets are based on current bid and offer prices respectively. If the market is not active the Group establishes a fair value by using valuation techniques. These include the use of recent arm’s length transactions, reference to other instruments that are substantially the same, discounted cash flow analysis, option pricing models and other valuation techniques commonly used by market participants.

Debt securities and equity shares, other than those classified as trading securities or at fair value through profit or loss, are classified as available-for-sale and recognised in the balance sheet at their fair value; available-for-sale investments are those intended to be held for an indeterminate period of time and may be sold in response to needs for liquidity or changes in interest rates, exchange rates or equity prices. Gains and losses arising from changes in the fair value of investments classified as available-for-sale are recognised directly in equity, until the financial asset is either sold, becomes impaired or matures, at which time the cumulative gain or loss previously recognised in equity is recognised in the income statement. Interest calculated using the effective interest method is recognised in the income statement.

Purchases and sales of securities and other financial assets and liabilities are recognised on trade date, being the date that the Group is committed to purchase or sell an asset. Trading securities and other financial assets and liabilities at fair value through profit or loss are initially recognised at fair value. Available-for-sale financial assets are initially recognised at fair value inclusive of transaction costs. These financial assets are derecognised when the rights to receive cash flows from the financial assets have expired or where the Group has transferred substantially all risks and rewards of ownership.

(f) Loans and advances to banks and customers

Loans and advances to banks and customers are accounted for at amortised cost using the effective interest method, except those which the Group intends to sell in the near term and which are accounted for at fair value, with the gains and losses arising from changes in their fair value reflected in the income statement. Loans and advances are initially recognised when cash is advanced to the borrowers at fair value inclusive of transaction costs. Loans and advances are derecognised when the rights to receive cash flows from them have expired or where the Group has transferred substantially all risks and rewards of ownership.

The Group has entered into securitisation and similar transactions to finance certain loans and advances to customers. Such financial assets continue to be recognised by the Group, together with a corresponding liability for the funding except in those cases where substantially all of the risks and rewards associated with the assets have been transferred or a significant proportion but not all of the risks and rewards have been transferred and the transferee has the ability to sell the assets when the assets are derecognised in full. If a fully proportional share of all, or of specifically identified, cash flows have been transferred, then that proportion of the assets is derecognised.

(g) Sale and repurchase agreements

Securities sold subject to repurchase agreements (’repos’) are recognised on the balance sheet where all of the risks and rewards are retained; the counterparty liability is included in deposits from banks or customer accounts, as appropriate. Securities purchased under agreements to resell (’reverse repos’) are recorded as loans and advances to banks or customers, as appropriate. The difference between sale and repurchase price is treated as interest and accrued over the life of the agreements using the effective interest method.

Securities lent to counterparties are retained in the financial statements. Securities borrowed are not recognised in the financial statements, unless these are sold to third parties, in which case the obligation to return them is recorded at fair value as a trading liability.

(h) Derivative financial instruments and hedge accounting

All derivatives are recognised at their fair value. Fair values are obtained from quoted market prices in active markets, including recent market transactions, and using valuation techniques, including discounted cash flow and options pricing models, as appropriate. Derivatives are carried in the balance sheet as assets when their fair value is positive and as liabilities when their fair value is negative.

The method of recognising the movements in the fair value of the derivatives depends on whether they are designated as hedging instruments and, if so, the nature of the item being hedged. Derivatives may only be designated as hedges provided certain strict criteria are met. At the inception of a hedge its terms must be clearly documented and there must be an expectation that the derivative will be highly effective in offsetting changes in the fair value or cash flow of the hedged risk. The effectiveness of the hedging relationship must be tested throughout its life and if at any point it is concluded that it is no longer highly effective in achieving its objective the hedge relationship is terminated.

The Group designates certain derivatives as either: (1) hedges of the fair value of the interest rate risk inherent in recognised assets or liabilities (fair value hedges); (2) hedges of highly probable future cash flows attributable to recognised assets or liabilities (cash flow hedges); or (3) hedges of net investments in foreign operations (net investment hedges). These are accounted for as follows:

(1) Fair value hedges

Changes in the fair value of derivatives that are designated and qualify as fair value hedges are recorded in the income statement, together with the changes in the fair value of the hedged asset or liability that are attributable to the hedged risk. If the hedge no longer meets the criteria for hedge accounting, changes in the fair value attributable to the hedged risk are no longer recognised in the income statement; the adjustment that has been made to the carrying amount of a hedged item is amortised to the income statement over the period to maturity.

(2) Cash flow hedges

The effective portion of changes in the fair value of derivatives that are designated and qualify as cash flow hedges is recognised in equity. The gain or loss relating to the ineffective portion is recognised immediately in the income statement. Amounts accumulated in equity are recycled to the income statement in the periods in which the hedged item affects profit or loss. When a hedging instrument expires or is sold, or when a hedge no longer meets the criteria for hedge accounting, any cumulative gain or loss existing in equity at that time remains in equity and is recognised when the forecast transaction is ultimately recognised in the income statement. When a forecast transaction is no longer expected to occur, the cumulative gain or loss that was reported in equity is immediately transferred to the income statement.

(3) Net investment hedges

Hedges of net investments in foreign operations are accounted for similarly to cash flow hedges. Any gain or loss on the hedging instrument relating to the effective portion of the hedge is recognised in equity; the gain or loss relating to the ineffective portion is recognised immediately in the income statement. Gains and losses accumulated in equity are included in the income statement when the foreign operation is disposed of.

Changes in the fair value of any derivative instrument that is not part of a hedging relationship are recognised immediately in the income statement.

Derivatives embedded in financial instruments and insurance contracts (unless the embedded derivative is itself an insurance contract) are treated as separate derivatives when their economic characteristics and risks are not closely related to those of the host contract and the host contract is not carried at fair value through profit or loss. These embedded derivatives are measured at fair value with changes in fair value recognised in the income statement. In accordance with IFRS 4 a policyholder’s option to surrender an insurance contract for a fixed amount is not treated as an embedded derivative.

(i) Offset

Financial assets and liabilities are offset and the net amount reported in the balance sheet when there is a legally enforceable right of set-off and there is an intention to settle on a net basis, or realise the asset and settle the liability simultaneously.

(j) Impairment of financial assets

(1) Assets accounted for at amortised cost

At each balance sheet date the Group assesses whether, as a result of one or more events occurring after initial recognition, there is objective evidence that a financial asset or group of financial assets has become impaired.

The criteria that the Group uses to determine that there is objective evidence of an impairment loss may include:

• Delinquency in contractual payments of principal and/or interest;
• Indications that the borrower or group of borrowers is experiencing significant financial difficulty;
• Restructuring of debt to reduce the burden on the borrower;
• Breach of loan covenants or conditions; and
• Initiation of bankruptcy proceedings.

The estimated period between a loss occurring and its identification is determined by local management for each identified portfolio. In general, the periods used vary between three months and nine months.

If there is objective evidence that an impairment loss has been incurred, an allowance is established which is calculated as the difference between the balance sheet carrying value of the asset and the present value of estimated future cash flows discounted at that asset’s original effective interest rate. For the Group’s portfolios of smaller balance homogenous loans, such as the residential mortgage, personal lending and credit card portfolios, allowances are calculated for groups of assets taking into account historical cash flow experience. For the Group’s other lending portfolios, allowances are established on a case-by-case basis. If an asset has a variable interest rate, the discount rate used for measuring the impairment loss is the current effective interest rate. The calculation of the present value of the estimated future cash flows of a collateralised asset or group of assets reflects the cash flows that may result from foreclosure less the costs of obtaining and selling the collateral, whether or not foreclosure is probable.

If there is no objective evidence of individual impairment the asset is included in a group of financial assets with similar credit risk characteristics and collectively assessed for impairment. Segmentation takes into account such factors as the type of asset, industry, geographical location, collateral type, past-due status and other relevant factors. These characteristics are relevant to the estimation of future cash flows for groups of such assets as they are indicative of the borrower’s ability to pay all amounts due according to the contractual terms of the assets being evaluated. Future cash flows are estimated on the basis of the contractual cash flows of the assets in the group and historical loss experience for assets with similar credit risk characteristics. Historical loss experience is adjusted on the basis of current observable data to reflect the effects of current conditions that did not affect the period on which the historical loss experience is based and to remove the effects of conditions in the historical period that do not exist currently. The methodology and assumptions used for estimating future cash flows are reviewed regularly by the Group to reduce any differences between loss estimates and actual loss experience.

If, in a subsequent period, the amount of the impairment loss decreases and the decrease can be related objectively to an event occurring after the impairment was recognised, such as an improvement in the borrower’s credit rating, the allowance is adjusted and the amount of the reversal is recognised in the income statement.

A loan or advance is normally written off, either partially or in full, against the related allowance when the proceeds from realising any available security have been received or there is no realistic prospect of recovery (as a result of the customer’s insolvency, ceasing to trade or other reason) and the amount of the loss has been determined. Subsequent recoveries of amounts previously written off decrease the amount of impairment losses recorded in the income statement.

(2) Available-for-sale financial assets

The Group assesses at each balance sheet date whether there is objective evidence that an available-for-sale financial asset is impaired. In addition to the criteria for financial assets accounted for at amortised cost set out above, this assessment involves considering whether there has been a significant or prolonged decline in the fair value of the asset below its cost, reviewing the current financial circumstances (including creditworthiness) and future prospects of the issuer and assessing the future cash flows expected to be realised. If an impairment loss has been incurred, the cumulative loss measured as the difference between the acquisition cost (net of any principal repayment and amortisation) and the current fair value, less any impairment loss on that asset previously recognised, is removed from equity and recognised in the income statement. If, in a subsequent period, the fair value of a debt instrument classified as available-for-sale increases and the increase can be objectively related to an event occurring after the impairment loss was recognised, the impairment loss is reversed through the income statement. Impairment losses recognised in the income statement on equity instruments are not reversed through the income statement.

(3) Renegotiated loans

Loans that are either subject to collective impairment assessment or individually significant and whose terms have been renegotiated are no longer considered to be past due but are treated as new loans. In subsequent years, the asset is considered to be past due and disclosed only if further renegotiated.

(k) Investment property

Property held for long-term rental yields and capital appreciation within the long-term assurance funds is classified as investment property. Investment property comprises freehold and long leasehold land and buildings and is carried in the balance sheet at fair value, being the open market value as determined in accordance with the guidance published by the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors. If this information is not available, the Group uses alternative valuation methods such as discounted cash flow projections or recent prices on less active markets. These valuations are reviewed at least annually by an independent valuation expert. Investment property being redeveloped for continuing use as investment property, or for which the market has become less active, continues to be measured at fair value. Changes in fair value are recorded in the income statement.

(l) Tangible fixed assets

Tangible fixed assets are included at cost less accumulated depreciation. The value of land (included in premises) is not depreciated. Depreciation on other assets is calculated using the straight-line method to allocate the difference between the cost and the residual value over their estimated useful lives, as follows:

Premises (excluding land):

• Freehold/long and short leasehold premises: shorter of 50 years or the remaining period of the lease
• Leasehold improvements: shorter of 10 years or the remaining period of the lease

Equipment:

• Fixtures and furnishings: 10-20 years
• Other equipment and motor vehicles: 2-8 years

The assets’ residual values and useful lives are reviewed, and adjusted if appropriate, at each balance sheet date.

Assets are reviewed for impairment whenever events or changes in circumstances indicate that the carrying amount may not be recoverable. In the event that an asset’s carrying amount is determined to be greater than its recoverable amount it is written down immediately. The recoverable amount is the higher of the asset’s fair value less costs to sell and its value in use.

(m) Leases

(1) As lessee

The leases entered into by the Group are primarily operating leases. Operating lease rentals are charged to the income statement on a straight-line basis over the period of the lease.

When an operating lease is terminated before the end of the lease period, any payment made to the lessor by way of penalty is recognised as an expense in the period of termination.

(2) As lessor

Assets leased to customers are classified as finance leases if the lease agreements transfer substantially all the risks and rewards of ownership to the lessee; all other leases are classified as operating leases. When assets are subject to finance leases, the present value of the lease payments is recognised as a receivable within loans and advances to banks and customers. Finance lease income is recognised over the term of the lease using the net investment method (before tax) reflecting a constant periodic rate of return.

Operating lease assets are included within tangible fixed assets at cost and depreciated over the life of the lease after taking into account anticipated residual values. Operating lease rental income is recognised on a straight line basis over the life of the lease.

The Group evaluates non-lease arrangements such as outsourcing and similar contracts to determine if they contain a lease which is then accounted for separately.

(n) Borrowings

Borrowings (which include deposits from banks, customer accounts, debt securities in issue and subordinated liabilities) are recognised initially at fair value, being their issue proceeds net of transaction costs incurred. Borrowings are subsequently stated at amortised cost using the effective interest method.

Preference shares and other instruments which carry a mandatory coupon or are redeemable on a specific date are classified as financial liabilities. The coupon on these instruments is recognised in the income statement as interest expense.

(o) Pensions and other post-retirement benefits

The Group operates a number of post-retirement benefit schemes for its employees including both defined benefit and defined contribution pension plans. A defined benefit scheme is a pension plan that defines an amount of pension benefit that an employee will receive on retirement, dependent on one or more factors such as age, years of service and salary. A defined contribution plan is a pension plan into which the Group pays fixed contributions; there is no legal or constructive obligation to pay further contributions.

Full actuarial valuations of the Group’s principal defined benefit schemes are carried out every three years with interim reviews in the intervening years; these valuations are updated to 31 December each year by qualified independent actuaries, or in the case of the Scottish Widows Retirement Benefits Scheme, by a qualified actuary employed by Scottish Widows. For the purposes of these annual updates scheme assets are included at their fair value and scheme liabilities are measured on an actuarial basis using the projected unit credit method adjusted for unrecognised actuarial gains and losses. The defined benefit scheme liabilities are discounted using rates equivalent to the market yields at the balance sheet date on high-quality corporate bonds that are denominated in the currency in which the benefits will be paid, and that have terms to maturity approximating to the terms of the related pension liability.

The Group’s income statement includes the current service cost of providing pension benefits, the expected return on the schemes’ assets, net of expected administration costs, and the interest cost on the schemes’ liabilities. Actuarial gains and losses arising from experience adjustments and changes in actuarial assumptions are not recognised unless the cumulative unrecognised gain or loss at the end of the previous reporting period exceeds the greater of 10 per cent of the scheme assets or liabilities (’the corridor approach’). In these circumstances the excess is charged or credited to the income statement over the employees’ expected average remaining working lives. Past service costs are charged immediately to the income statement, unless the charges are conditional on the employees remaining in service for a specified period of time (the vesting period). In this case, the past service costs are amortised on a straight-line basis over the vesting period.

The Group’s balance sheet includes the net surplus or deficit, being the fair value of scheme assets less the discounted value of scheme liabilities adjusted for the corridor. Surpluses are only recognised to the extent that they are recoverable through reduced contributions in the future or through refunds from the schemes.

The Group recognises the effect of material changes to the terms of its defined benefit pension plans which reduce future benefits as curtailments; gains and losses are recognised in the income statement when the curtailments occur.

The costs of the Group’s defined contribution plans are charged to the income statement in the period in which they fall due.

(p) Share-based compensation

The Group operates a number of equity-settled, share-based compensation plans. The value of the employee services received in exchange for equity instruments granted under these plans is recognised as an expense over the vesting period of the instruments, with a corresponding increase in equity. This expense is determined by reference to the fair value of the number of equity instruments that are expected to vest. The fair value of equity instruments granted is based on market prices, if available, at the date of grant. In the absence of market prices, the fair value of the instruments at the date of grant is estimated using an appropriate valuation technique, such as a Black-Scholes option pricing model. The determination of fair values excludes the impact of any non-market vesting conditions, which are included in the assumptions used to estimate the number of options that are expected to vest. At each balance sheet date, this estimate is reassessed and if necessary revised. Any revision of the original estimate is recognised in the income statement over the remaining vesting period, together with a corresponding adjustment to equity.

(q) Taxation

Current income tax which is payable on taxable profits is recognised as an expense in the period in which the profits arise.

For the Group’s long-term assurance businesses, the tax charge is analysed between tax that is payable in respect of policyholders’ returns and tax that is payable on equity holders’ returns. This allocation is based on an assessment of the rates of tax which will be applied to the returns under current UK tax rules.

Deferred tax is provided in full, using the liability method, on temporary differences arising between the tax bases of assets and liabilities and their carrying amounts in the consolidated financial statements. However, deferred income tax is not accounted for if it arises from initial recognition of an asset or liability in a transaction other than a business combination that at the time of the transaction affects neither accounting nor taxable profit or loss. Deferred tax is determined using tax rates that have been enacted or substantially enacted by the balance sheet date which are expected to apply when the related deferred tax asset is realised or the deferred tax liability is settled.

Deferred tax assets are recognised where it is probable that future taxable profit will be available against which the temporary differences can be utilised. Deferred tax is provided on temporary differences arising from investments in subsidiaries and associates, except where the timing of the reversal of the temporary difference is controlled by the Group and it is probable that the difference will not reverse in the foreseeable future. Income tax payable on profits is recognised as an expense in the period in which those profits arise. The tax effects of losses available for carry forward are recognised as an asset when it is probable that future taxable profits will be available against which these losses can be utilised. Deferred tax related to fair value re-measurement of available-for-sale investments and cash flow hedges, which are charged or credited directly to equity, is also credited or charged directly to equity and is subsequently recognised in the income statement together with the deferred gain or loss.

Deferred and current tax assets and liabilities are offset when they arise in the same tax reporting group and where there is both a legal right of offset and the intention to settle on a net basis or to realise the asset and settle the liability simultaneously.

(r) Insurance

The Group undertakes both life assurance and general insurance business.

For accounting purposes the life assurance business issues three types of contract:

Insurance contracts – these contracts contain significant insurance risk, which the Group defines as the possibility of having to pay benefits on the occurrence of an insured event which are significantly more than the benefits payable if the insured event were not to occur.

Investment contracts containing a discretionary participation feature – these contracts do not contain significant insurance risk, but contain features which entitle the holder to receive, in addition to the guaranteed benefits, further amounts that are likely to be a significant proportion of the total benefits and the amount and timing of which is at the discretion of the Group and based upon the performance of specified assets. Contracts with a discretionary participation feature are referred to as participating investment contracts.

Non-participating investment contracts – these contracts do not contain significant insurance risk or a discretionary participation feature.

For accounting purposes the general insurance business only issues insurance contracts.

(1) Life assurance business

(i) Accounting for insurance and participating investment contracts

• Premiums and claims

Premiums received in respect of insurance and participating investment contracts are recognised as revenue when due, except as detailed below in respect of unit-linked contracts.

Claims are recorded as an expense when they are incurred.

Liabilities

– insurance or participating investment contracts in the Group’s With Profit Fund

Liabilities of the Group’s With Profit Fund, including guarantees and options embedded within products written by that fund, are stated at their realistic values in accordance with the Financial Services Authority’s realistic capital regime. Further details on the realistic capital regime are given in life assurance businesses section.

– insurance or participating investment contracts which are not unit-linked or in the Group’s With Profit Fund

A liability for contractual benefits that are expected to be incurred in the future is recorded when the premiums are recognised. The liability is calculated by estimating the future cash flows over the duration of in-force policies and discounting them back to the valuation date allowing for probabilities of occurrence. The liability will vary with movements in interest rates and with the cost of life assurance and annuity benefits where future mortality is uncertain.

Assumptions are made in respect of all material factors affecting future cash flows, including future interest rates, mortality and costs.

– insurance or participating investment contracts which are unit-linked

Allocated premiums in respect of unit-linked contracts that are either insurance or participating investment contracts are recognised as liabilities. These liabilities are increased or reduced by the change in the unit prices and are reduced by policy administration fees, mortality and surrender charges and any withdrawals. The mortality charges deducted in each period from the policyholders as a group are considered adequate to cover the expected total death benefit claims in excess of the contract account balances in each period and hence no additional liability is established for these claims. Revenue consists of fees deducted for mortality, policy administration and surrender charges. Interest or changes in the unit prices credited to the account balances and excess benefit claims in excess of the account balances incurred in the period are charged as expenses in the income statement.

• Unallocated surplus

Any amounts in the With Profit Fund not yet determined as being due to policyholders are recognised as an unallocated surplus which is shown separately from other liabilities.

• Value of in-force business

The Group recognises as an asset the value of in-force business in respect of life insurance and participating investment contracts. The asset represents the present value of the shareholders’ interest in the profits expected to emerge from those contracts written at the balance sheet date. This is determined using appropriate allowance for economic conditions and appropriate assumptions for future mortality rates and future persistency rates, making allowance for the realistic value of financial options and guarantees. Each cash flow is valued using the discount rate consistent with that applied to such a cash flow in the capital markets, including an explicit allowance for non-market risk. The asset in the consolidated balance sheet is presented gross of attributable tax and movements in the asset are reflected within other operating income in the income statement.

(ii) Accounting for non-participating investment contracts

All of the Group’s non-participating investment contracts are unit-linked. These contracts are accounted for as financial liabilities whose value is contractually linked to the fair values of financial assets within the Group’s unitised investment funds. The value of the unit-linked financial liabilities is determined using current unit prices multiplied by the number of units attributed to the contract holders at the balance sheet date. Their value is never less than the amount payable on surrender, discounted for the required notice period where applicable.

Deposits and withdrawals are accounted for directly in the balance sheet as adjustments to the liability.

The Group receives investment management fees in respect of services rendered in conjunction with the issue and management of investment contracts where the Group actively manages the consideration received from its customers to fund a return that is based on the investment profile that the customer selected on origination of the instrument. These services comprise an indeterminate number of acts over the lives of the individual contracts and, therefore, the Group defers these fees and recognises them on a straight-line basis over the estimated lives of the contracts.

Directly incremental commissions that vary with and are related to either securing new or renewing existing non-participating investment contracts are deferred; all other costs are recognised as expenses when incurred. This asset is subsequently amortised over the period of the provision of investment management services and is reviewed for impairment in circumstances where its carrying amount may not be recoverable. If the asset is greater than its recoverable amount it is written down immediately.

(2) General insurance business

The Group both underwrites and acts as intermediary in the sale of general insurance products. Underwriting premiums are included, net of refunds, in the period in which insurance cover is provided to the customer; premiums received relating to future periods are deferred and only credited to the income statement when earned. Broking commission is recognised when the underwriter accepts the risk of providing insurance cover to the customer. Where appropriate, provision is made for the effect of future policy terminations based upon past experience.

The underwriting business makes provision for the estimated cost of claims notified but not settled and claims incurred but not reported at the balance sheet date. The provision for the cost of claims notified but not settled is based upon a best estimate of the cost of settling the outstanding claims after taking into account all known facts. In those cases where there is insufficient information to determine the required provision, statistical techniques are used which take into account the cost of claims that have recently been settled and make assumptions about the future development of the outstanding cases. Similar statistical techniques are used to determine the provision for claims incurred but not reported at the balance sheet date. Claims liabilities are not discounted.

(3) Liability adequacy test

At each balance sheet date liability adequacy tests are performed to ensure the adequacy of insurance and participating investment contract liabilities net of related deferred tax assets and acquired value of in-force business. In performing these tests current best estimates of discounted future contractual cash flows and claims handling and administration expenses, as well as investment income from the assets backing such liabilities, are used. Any deficiency is immediately charged to profit or loss by establishing a provision for losses arising from liability adequacy tests.

(4) Reinsurance

Contracts entered into by the Group with reinsurers under which the Group is compensated for losses on one or more contracts issued by the Group and that meet the classification requirements for insurance contracts are classified as reinsurance contracts held. Insurance contracts entered into by the Group under which the contract holder is another insurer (inwards reinsurance) are included with insurance contracts.

The benefits to which the Group is entitled under its reinsurance contracts held are recognised as reinsurance assets. These assets consist of short-term balances due from reinsurers as well as longer term receivables that are dependent on the expected claims and benefits arising under the related reinsured insurance contracts. Amounts recoverable from or due to reinsurers are measured consistently with the amounts associated with the reinsured insurance contracts and in accordance with the terms of each reinsurance contract and are regularly reviewed for impairment. Reinsurance liabilities are primarily premiums payable for reinsurance contracts and are recognised as an expense when due.

(s) Foreign currency translation

(1) Functional and presentation currency

Items included in the financial statements of each of the Group’s entities are measured using the currency of the primary economic environment in which the entity operates (’the functional currency’). The consolidated financial statements are presented in sterling, which is the Company’s functional and presentation currency.

(2) Transactions and balances

Foreign currency transactions are translated into the functional currency using the exchange rates prevailing at the dates of the transactions. Foreign exchange gains and losses resulting from the settlement of such transactions and from the translation at year end exchange rates of monetary assets and liabilities denominated in foreign currencies are recognised in the income statement, except when deferred in equity as qualifying cash flow or net investment hedges. Non-monetary assets that are measured at fair value are translated using the exchange rate at the date that the fair value was determined. Translation differences on equities and similar non-monetary items measured at fair value are recognised in profit or loss, except for differences on available-for-sale non-monetary financial assets such as equity shares, which are included in the fair value reserve in equity unless the asset is a hedged item in a fair value hedge.

(3) Group companies

The results and financial position of all the Group entities (none of which has the currency of a hyperinflationary economy) that have a functional currency different from the presentation currency are translated into the presentation currency as follows:

(i) assets and liabilities for each balance sheet presented are translated at the closing rate at the date of that balance sheet;

(ii) income and expenses for each income statement are translated at average exchange rates (unless this average is not a reasonable approximation of the cumulative effect of the rates prevailing on the transaction dates, in which case income and expenses are translated at the dates of the transactions); and

(iii) all resulting exchange differences are recognised as a separate component of equity.

On consolidation, exchange differences arising from the translation of the net investment in foreign entities are taken to shareholders’ equity. When a foreign operation is sold, such exchange differences are recognised in the income statement as part of the gain or loss on sale.

Goodwill and fair value adjustments arising on the acquisition of a foreign entity are treated as assets and liabilities of the foreign entity and translated at the closing rate.

(t) Provisions

Provisions are recognised in respect of present obligations arising from past events where it is probable that outflows of resources will be required to settle the obligations and they can be reliably estimated.

The Group recognises provisions in respect of vacant leasehold property where the unavoidable costs of the present obligations exceed anticipated rental income.

Contingent liabilities are possible obligations whose existence depends on the outcome of uncertain future events or those present obligations where the outflows of resources are uncertain or cannot be measured reliably. Contingent liabilities are not recognised in the financial statements but are disclosed unless they are remote.

(u) Dividends

Dividends on ordinary shares are recognised in equity in the period in which they are paid.

(v) Cash and cash equivalent

For the purposes of the cash flow statement, cash and cash equivalents comprise cash and non-mandatory balances with central banks and amounts due from banks with a maturity of less than three months.